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A traction battery stores electrical energy and supplies it to the electric motor or motors that propel the vehicle. In hybrid vehicles it works together with another power source, while in battery-electric vehicles it provides the main source of propulsion energy.

The traction battery provides the large amount of electrical energy needed to propel the vehicle. The conventional 12-volt battery mainly supplies low-voltage systems and supports functions such as vehicle electronics, control systems and starting procedures.

Battery capacity indicates how much electrical energy the battery can store and is commonly expressed in kilowatt-hours (kWh). A larger usable capacity generally allows more electrical energy to be available for driving.

The suspension supports the vehicle, allows the wheels to move over uneven surfaces and helps keep the tyres in contact with the road while controlling body movement.

Common suspension components include springs, shock absorbers or dampers, control arms, bushings, ball joints and other links connecting the wheels to the vehicle structure.

Possible signs include excessive bouncing, unusual noises, poor stability, uneven tyre wear, excessive body movement in bends or a vehicle that sits unevenly. These symptoms should be inspected because they can also have other causes.

A shock absorber controls suspension movement by damping the repeated movement of the springs. This helps stabilise the vehicle and maintain tyre contact with the road.

Possible signs include excessive bouncing, increased body movement, poor stability, unusual suspension noises, uneven tyre wear or visible fluid leakage from the shock absorber.

No. Springs support the vehicle and allow the suspension to move over bumps, while shock absorbers control and damp that movement. The two components work together as part of the suspension system.

A suspension spring supports the vehicle and allows the wheels to move over uneven surfaces while helping maintain the vehicle's normal ride height.

Common designs include coil springs, leaf springs, torsion bars and air springs. The type used depends on the vehicle and suspension design.

Possible signs include an uneven ride height, unusual suspension noises, poor handling or a visibly cracked or broken spring. A suspected spring defect should be inspected promptly.

The exhaust system carries combustion gases away from the engine and directs them out of the vehicle. It can also reduce exhaust noise and use emissions-control equipment to reduce pollutants.

Possible signs include unusually loud exhaust noise, rattling, visible damage, unusual exhaust smells, warning lights or emissions problems. A suspected leak should be inspected promptly.

Depending on the vehicle, the system can include an exhaust manifold, pipes, silencers, catalytic converters, particulate filters, sensors and other emissions-control components.

Exhaust gas contains products of fuel combustion and can include carbon dioxide, water vapour, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, unburned hydrocarbons and particulate matter. The quantities depend on the engine, fuel and emissions-control system.

Some exhaust components, including carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and fine particles, can harm human health or contribute to air pollution. Exhaust should therefore never be allowed to accumulate in an enclosed space.

Vehicles can use technologies such as catalytic converters, particulate filters and electronic engine-management systems to reduce pollutants. Emission standards also limit the amount of certain pollutants that vehicles may produce.

Soot is produced when fuel does not burn completely. Diesel engines can produce particularly significant amounts of particulate matter, especially when combustion or emissions-control systems are not functioning correctly.

A diesel particulate filter traps a large proportion of the soot particles in the exhaust. The filter periodically removes accumulated material through a process known as regeneration.

Yes. Unusually high soot emissions can result from engine faults, poor combustion, a defective particulate filter or other problems with the emissions-control system.

A catalytic converter reduces harmful pollutants in engine exhaust by converting them through chemical reactions into less harmful substances before they leave the exhaust system.

It is installed in the exhaust system between the engine and the exhaust outlet. Its exact position varies between vehicles and may be relatively close to the engine so that it reaches its operating temperature quickly.

Possible signs include an emissions or engine warning light, excessive exhaust emissions, reduced engine performance, unusual exhaust smells or failure of an emissions test. These symptoms can also have other causes and should be diagnosed properly.

An engine converts energy into mechanical power that can be used to drive the vehicle's wheels. Internal-combustion engines obtain this energy by burning fuel, while electric vehicles use electrical energy in traction motors.

Possible signs include unusual noises, loss of power, excessive smoke, overheating, fluid leaks, difficult starting or an engine warning light. These symptoms can have many different causes and should be investigated when necessary.

Maintenance helps keep lubrication, cooling, fuel, ignition and emissions systems working correctly. Following the manufacturer's service requirements can improve reliability and help prevent serious mechanical damage.

A petrol engine draws or injects fuel and air into the engine, compresses the mixture and ignites it using a spark plug. The resulting combustion produces pressure that moves the pistons and generates mechanical power.

A petrol engine normally uses spark ignition, while a diesel engine uses compression ignition. The two engine types also differ in fuel, combustion characteristics and emissions-control systems.

Petrol-engine exhaust can contain pollutants such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and, particularly with some direct-injection engines, particulate matter. Modern emissions-control systems are designed to reduce these pollutants.

A diesel engine compresses air inside the cylinder until it becomes very hot. Diesel fuel is then injected into the compressed air and ignites because of the high temperature.

A diesel engine normally uses compression ignition, while a petrol engine normally uses spark plugs to ignite an air-fuel mixture. The two engine types also differ in fuel, combustion characteristics and emissions-control systems.

Diesel engines can produce pollutants including nitrogen oxides and particulate matter or soot. Modern vehicles use systems such as diesel particulate filters and other emissions-control technologies to reduce these pollutants.

An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical power that can propel the vehicle. Depending on the drivetrain, one or more motors may drive the wheels.

Yes. Hybrid electric vehicles combine at least one electric propulsion motor with another propulsion-energy source, normally an internal-combustion engine.

Yes. In vehicles equipped with regenerative braking, the traction motor can operate as a generator while the vehicle slows down, converting part of its kinetic energy into electrical energy that can be stored in the traction battery.

The timing belt synchronises the crankshaft and camshaft so that the pistons and valves move in the correct sequence while the engine is operating.

The replacement interval depends on the vehicle and engine. Drivers should follow the manufacturer's specified mileage and age interval rather than waiting for obvious symptoms of wear.

The engine will stop operating and, depending on the engine design, the pistons and valves can collide and cause severe internal engine damage.

A glow plug heats the combustion chamber of a diesel engine before and during cold starting so that the injected diesel fuel can ignite more reliably.

Diesel engines normally ignite fuel through compression rather than an electrical spark. Glow plugs therefore assist cold combustion but do not continuously ignite the fuel in the same way that spark plugs do in a petrol engine.

Possible signs include difficult cold starting, rough running shortly after startup, increased cold-start smoke or a glow plug or engine warning light. Similar symptoms can have other causes, so proper diagnosis may be necessary.

A piston moves inside the cylinder while the engine draws in air or an air-fuel mixture, compresses it and uses combustion to create pressure. This pressure acts on the piston and contributes to turning the crankshaft.

The number varies by engine design. Common passenger-car engines can have three, four, six or more cylinders, while some engines use different configurations according to their size and performance requirements.

Cylinder capacity or engine displacement is the total swept volume of the engine's cylinders. It is commonly expressed in cubic centimetres (cm³) or litres.

Engine oil lubricates moving components, reduces friction and wear, helps carry away heat and keeps contaminants suspended so that they can be removed by the oil filter or during an oil change.

Depending on the vehicle, the level is checked with an oil dipstick or an electronic oil-level system. The vehicle manufacturer's instructions should be followed because the required procedure can vary between engines.

No. Engine oils have different viscosity grades and technical specifications. Only oil meeting the requirements specified by the vehicle manufacturer should be used.

Coolant absorbs heat from the engine and carries it to the radiator, where the heat can be released. It also helps protect the cooling system against freezing, corrosion and excessive temperatures.

No. Vehicles can require different coolant specifications and mixtures. Drivers should use coolant that meets the vehicle manufacturer's requirements and avoid mixing incompatible coolant types.

No. A hot cooling system can be pressurised and opening it can release hot coolant or steam. Allow the system to cool and follow the vehicle manufacturer's instructions before opening the reservoir.

Regular maintenance helps keep safety-critical and mechanical systems working correctly, reduces the risk of breakdowns and can identify worn or damaged components before they cause larger problems.

It can include checking and replacing engine oil and filters, inspecting tyres and brakes, checking fluid levels, lights, suspension and other components, and performing other work specified by the vehicle manufacturer.

Service intervals depend on the vehicle, engine, mileage, age and operating conditions. Drivers should follow the maintenance schedule provided by the vehicle manufacturer.

A spare tyre is an additional tyre, normally mounted on a wheel, that can temporarily replace a punctured or damaged road wheel.

In everyday use the terms are often used interchangeably. Technically, a spare wheel usually consists of both the wheel rim and the tyre already fitted to it.

A space-saver is a smaller and lighter temporary spare designed to take up less storage space. It normally has stricter speed and distance limitations than a normal road wheel.

No. Temporary spare wheels are intended for emergency use. Follow the maximum speed, distance and other restrictions specified by the vehicle or tyre manufacturer.

No. Many modern cars instead use a tyre-repair kit, run-flat tyres or roadside-assistance arrangements.

For some punctures, yes. A repair kit may temporarily seal a small puncture, but it may not work for severe tyre damage, sidewall damage or a damaged wheel rim.

Yes. A spare tyre can lose pressure while stored for long periods. Check it periodically according to the manufacturer's recommended pressure.

No. The wheel dimensions, bolt pattern, load capacity and other specifications must be compatible with the vehicle. Use only a spare approved or specified for the vehicle.

Drive cautiously, respect any temporary-wheel restrictions and have the damaged tyre repaired or replaced as soon as reasonably possible.

This depends on the country and vehicle category. Some jurisdictions require particular breakdown equipment, while others allow vehicles to operate without a spare wheel.

Keep control of the vehicle, reduce speed gradually and move to a safe stopping place. Avoid sudden braking or steering because the vehicle's handling may be significantly affected.

Normally no. Driving on a deflated tyre can damage the tyre and wheel and can make the vehicle difficult to control. Some run-flat tyres permit limited continued driving under specified conditions, so the manufacturer's instructions should be followed.

Common causes include punctures, damaged valves, cracked or damaged wheels, tyre sidewall damage and gradual air leakage. Regular tyre-pressure and condition checks can help identify some problems before complete pressure loss occurs.

A jack is used to lift part of a vehicle so that a wheel can be removed or certain maintenance tasks can be performed.

The jack should only be positioned at the lifting points specified by the vehicle manufacturer. Using an unsuitable location can damage the vehicle or cause it to become unstable.

No. A jack is primarily a lifting device and should not be relied upon as the sole support when working underneath a raised vehicle. Appropriate supporting equipment should be used for work beneath the vehicle.

A modern car key can unlock and lock the vehicle and authorise the engine or electric propulsion system to start. It may use a mechanical blade, electronic transponder, remote-control functions or a keyless system.

A transponder key contains an electronic identification device that communicates with the vehicle's immobiliser. If the correct code is not recognised, the vehicle normally prevents the engine or propulsion system from being started.

Use a spare key if available and arrange a replacement through an appropriate dealer, locksmith or vehicle specialist. Modern replacement keys often need to be programmed to the vehicle's electronic security system.