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A tow hitch, legally referred to as a coupling device, is equipment fitted to a vehicle so that a trailer, caravan or other towable vehicle can be mechanically connected to it.

No. The trailer must remain within the towing limits approved for the vehicle and the maximum permitted load of the coupling itself.

No. The coupling may not be subjected to a towing load greater than the maximum permitted value indicated for the coupling.

The hitch itself does not, but the trailer combination can. The required licence depends mainly on the maximum authorised masses of the towing vehicle, trailer and complete combination.

A category B vehicle may tow a trailer with a maximum authorised mass of up to 750 kg. A heavier trailer can also fall within category B when the maximum authorised mass of the complete combination does not exceed 3500 kg.

For a category B towing vehicle with a trailer exceeding 750 kg, code 96 allows a combination with a maximum authorised mass exceeding 3500 kg but not exceeding 4250 kg.

A category BE licence is generally required when a category B towing vehicle is combined with a heavier trailer and the combination falls outside the limits of category B or B with code 96, within the applicable BE mass limits.

No. Since 1 September 2026, fitting a tow hitch no longer requires a separate technical inspection in Flanders. The tow hitch can still be checked as part of the vehicle's applicable technical inspection.

Yes. Since 1 September 2026, a separate inspection is no longer required solely because a tow hitch has been installed, but the tow hitch can still be checked as part of the vehicle's applicable technical inspection.

A trailer with a maximum authorised mass of no more than 750 kg normally does not need its own registration. It must display a reproduction of the towing vehicle's registration plate.

If a bicycle carrier mounted on the rear of the vehicle or on its tow hitch hides the registration plate, the carrier must display a reproduction of the vehicle's registration plate.

A trailer without a breakaway brake must normally have an auxiliary coupling in addition to the main coupling. This may consist of one or two cables or chains and must be capable of keeping the trailer connected if the main coupling fails.

Trailers equipped with a breakaway braking system are treated differently. The system is designed to apply the trailer brakes automatically if the trailer separates from the towing vehicle.

Yes. Make sure that the coupling is fully engaged and secured, the electrical connection and trailer lights function correctly and any required safety or breakaway connection is properly attached.

Yes, when it meets the requirements for a priority vehicle. Belgian law expressly recognises fire-service vehicles among the vehicles whose drivers receive special exemptions while carrying out an urgent mission.

You must immediately clear the way and give priority. You must stop if necessary so that the fire truck can pass safely.

Yes. A priority vehicle must use its blue flashing lights when carrying out an urgent mission.

No. The special audible warning device may only be used during an urgent mission, but the Road Code does not require it to be used continuously throughout every urgent journey.

The specific obligation requiring every road user to immediately clear the way and give priority applies when the special audible warning announces the approach of the priority vehicle. Drivers should nevertheless remain alert and avoid obstructing a fire truck displaying blue flashing lights.

Yes, under specific conditions. A priority vehicle using its special audible warning may pass a red traffic light at moderate speed, provided this does not create danger for other road users.

Yes. A fire-service vehicle carrying out an urgent mission may depart from many provisions of the Belgian Road Code. Certain specifically listed safety rules and orders from authorised persons must still be respected.

Yes, when the urgent mission justifies it. Priority vehicles carrying out an urgent mission can be exempted from ordinary speed restrictions and posted C43 speed limits under the conditions provided by Belgian law.

Yes. A priority vehicle carrying out an urgent mission may use the emergency lane, allowing it to reach an incident when the normal traffic lanes are congested or blocked.

Keep the required emergency corridor clear and create as much safe space as possible. Do not drive into the emergency corridor yourself or obstruct the route needed by emergency vehicles.

No. The emergency corridor and other space created for priority vehicles must remain available for authorised emergency traffic. Ordinary drivers may not use it simply to bypass congestion.

Reduce speed, leave sufficient space and remain especially alert. Firefighters, hoses and rescue equipment may occupy the carriageway, and police or emergency personnel may temporarily control or divert traffic.

Not merely because it belongs to the fire service. The broad exemptions available to the driver of a fire-service priority vehicle apply when the vehicle is carrying out an urgent mission. Otherwise, the ordinary traffic rules generally apply unless another specific exception exists.

A priority vehicle may use its special audible warning device only when carrying out an urgent mission.

You must immediately clear the way and give priority to the approaching priority vehicle. If necessary, you must stop.

No. The special audible warning device of a priority vehicle is subject to specific emergency-vehicle rules. Ordinary sound signals must be kept as short as possible and are generally permitted only when necessary to prevent an accident or, outside built-up areas, to warn a driver who is about to be overtaken.

Outside built-up areas, cars travelling in convoy for a journey made together must keep a distance of at least 50 metres between vehicles.

No. Simply travelling together as a convoy does not give ordinary vehicles special priority. Drivers must continue to follow the normal traffic rules.

No. Road users may not break through a military column consisting of marching troops or a vehicle convoy whose movement is controlled by authorised personnel or authorised military personnel.

Belgian priority vehicles are equipped with one or more blue flashing lights together with a special audible warning device.

The blue flashing lights must be used during an urgent mission. They may also be used during another mission when the nature of that mission justifies their use.

The specific obligation to immediately clear the way and give priority applies when the approaching priority vehicle uses its special audible warning device. When blue lights are visible without the siren, road users should remain alert and avoid obstructing the vehicle.

Belgian agricultural machinery can include land and forestry vehicles, agricultural tractors, self-propelled agricultural machines, agricultural trailers and other equipment designed or registered for agricultural work.

Category G is the Belgian national driving-licence category specifically intended for land and forestry vehicles and their trailers and for certain vehicles registered as agricultural equipment, motor ploughs or mowing machines.

The category G theory examination may be taken from 15 years and 9 months and the practical examination from 16 years.

Yes. Until the age of 18, code 205 is placed on the licence and limits the driver to a vehicle combination consisting of a tractor and trailer with a maximum authorised mass of no more than 20 tonnes.

Not necessarily. Holders of categories B, BE, C1, C1E, C or CE may drive category G vehicles within the maximum authorised masses covered by their licence. A category CE licence also gives entitlement to category G.

Yes. A person born before 1 October 1982 may drive category G agricultural vehicles in Belgium without holding a category G licence.

Agricultural vehicles and machinery belonging to categories that require registration for public-road use must be registered with the DIV and display the appropriate registration plate.

No. Agricultural and forestry vehicles can have an ordinary registration plate. The plate beginning with G is a special fiscal plate for qualifying vehicles authorised to use fully tax-exempt agricultural diesel.

No. Agricultural vehicles are specifically prohibited from Belgian motorways, regardless of whether an individual machine might otherwise be capable of reaching motorway speed.

No. Agricultural vehicles are also expressly excluded from roads legally designated as autowegen.

No. The applicable maximum speed depends on the vehicle's construction, mass, tyres, suspension, road and traffic signs. The vehicle's own construction speed may also impose a lower limit than the general road limit.

An F99c road is a road reserved for the categories indicated on the sign, which can include agricultural vehicles together with pedestrians, cyclists, riders and speed-pedelec riders.

The maximum speed on a road reserved under the current F99c rules is 30 km/h.

Motorised traffic, and agricultural vehicles in particular, must exercise increased caution towards pedestrians, cyclists, riders and the other vulnerable users permitted on the road.

Agricultural machines can be slow, wide and difficult to see around. Drivers should wait for sufficient visibility and space and should be alert for machinery turning into fields or farm entrances.

An ordinary Belgian electric bicycle has an auxiliary electric motor with a maximum continuous rated power of no more than 250 W. The motor provides pedal assistance and stops assisting when the bicycle reaches 25 km/h or earlier when the rider stops pedalling.

Yes. Electric assistance within the 250 W and 25 km/h limits does not change the vehicle's classification as a bicycle.

No. An ordinary electric bicycle within the 250 W and 25 km/h limits does not require a driving licence.

No specific minimum age applies merely because an ordinary bicycle has compliant electric pedal assistance. It follows the ordinary bicycle rules.

No. An ordinary electric bicycle within the 250 W and 25 km/h category does not require DIV registration or a registration plate.

No. The ordinary electric bicycle with a maximum of 250 W and pedal assistance up to 25 km/h does not require a certificate of conformity.

No. There is currently no general helmet requirement for riders of ordinary electric bicycles, although wearing a suitable bicycle helmet is recommended.

Yes, under the same conditions as an ordinary bicycle. An available and usable compulsory cycle path must generally be used where the Belgian cyclist rules require it.

A motorised cycle is a pedal vehicle with an auxiliary drive primarily intended to assist pedalling, with a maximum power of 1000 W and assistance ending by 25 km/h.

You must normally be at least 16 years old to ride a motorised cycle.

No. Although a minimum age of 16 applies, no driving licence is required for a motorised cycle within the applicable 1000 W and 25 km/h limits.

Yes. Unlike an ordinary 250 W electric bicycle, a motorised cycle requires a certificate of conformity (COC) confirming that it complies with the applicable technical requirements.

Yes. Under the current Belgian Road Code, riders of motorised cycles are treated in the same way as riders of ordinary cycles for road-position and traffic rules.

For an ordinary pedal-assisted bicycle, compulsory motor-vehicle liability insurance is not required. Belgian insurance rules generally require such insurance when a motorised vehicle can propel itself autonomously at more than 25 km/h.

A pedal cycle providing assistance above 25 km/h no longer falls within the ordinary electric-bicycle or motorised-cycle categories. A vehicle providing pedal assistance up to 45 km/h can qualify as a speed pedelec and is subject to additional rules concerning the licence, helmet and registration.

Because an ordinary electric bicycle follows the bicycle rules, it must use a white or yellow front light and a red rear light between nightfall and dawn and whenever visibility is less than approximately 200 metres.

An electric vehicle uses an electric drivetrain for propulsion. A fully electric vehicle relies entirely on electric propulsion, while a plug-in hybrid combines electric propulsion with another power source such as a combustion engine.

No. An electric passenger car follows the ordinary Belgian rules for cars concerning speed, priority, lane use, parking and road access unless a specific rule provides otherwise.

An ordinary electric passenger car normally requires a category B driving licence when its maximum authorised mass does not exceed 3500 kg and it is designed for no more than eight passengers in addition to the driver.

Yes. An electric car subject to ordinary vehicle registration must be registered with the DIV and display the required registration plate before being used in traffic.

Yes. Motor vehicles participating in Belgian road traffic must normally have at least the required civil-liability motor insurance.

Yes. Belgian law expressly considers charging the battery of an electric or hybrid-electric vehicle to be parking.

An E9 parking sign can be supplemented with the prescribed electric-vehicle symbol to reserve a parking place for electric or hybrid-electric vehicles.

Yes. At a reserved parking place equipped with public charging infrastructure, an electric or hybrid-electric vehicle must be connected to that infrastructure while parked there.

No where the Belgian rule reserving the public charging space applies. Merely being an electric vehicle is not sufficient; the vehicle must be connected to the charging infrastructure.

No. A charging-space reservation does not remove any applicable parking charges, time restrictions or other local parking conditions.

Yes. Belgian parking rules for these spaces expressly include hybrid-electric vehicles, subject to the applicable signs and requirement to connect to public charging infrastructure.

Yes. Fully electric vehicles are currently authorised to travel in the Brussels LEZ and benefit from an automatic exemption from the emission-based access restrictions.

A fully electric vehicle produces no combustion-engine exhaust particles, but tyres, brakes and road-surface interaction can still generate particulate matter.

Yes. An ordinary electric car may use a motorway under the same access rules as a comparable conventional car. Electric propulsion does not create a separate motorway restriction.

An ordinary Belgian pedelec is an electrically assisted bicycle with a maximum continuous rated motor power of no more than 250 W and pedal assistance ending by 25 km/h.

Yes. Adding a compliant electric auxiliary motor of no more than 250 W with pedal assistance up to 25 km/h does not change the vehicle's legal classification as a bicycle.

An ordinary electric bicycle in this category is equipped with pedal assistance, meaning that the motor provides assistance while the pedals are being used.

The electric assistance must be progressively reduced and stopped by 25 km/h. It must also stop earlier when the rider stops pedalling.

Yes, using your own effort or when travelling downhill. The 25 km/h threshold limits the electric assistance rather than imposing a general maximum bicycle speed.

No. An ordinary electric bicycle within the 250 W and 25 km/h limits does not require a driving licence.

No specific minimum age applies. An ordinary pedelec follows the same rules as a conventional bicycle.

No. An ordinary pedelec does not require DIV registration or a registration plate.

No. An ordinary 250 W electric bicycle with assistance up to 25 km/h does not require a certificate of conformity.

No. Compulsory motor-vehicle liability insurance does not apply to an ordinary pedelec whose motor only provides compliant pedal assistance.

No. There is currently no general helmet requirement for an ordinary electric bicycle, although wearing a suitable bicycle helmet is recommended.

Yes, under the same conditions as an ordinary bicycle. When an applicable and usable compulsory cycle path is provided, the rider must normally use it.

Because it is legally a bicycle, it follows the ordinary bicycle equipment requirements concerning brakes, a bell, reflectors and lights when required.

An ordinary pedelec is limited to 250 W and 25 km/h and has pedal assistance only. A motorised cycle may have up to 1000 W, remains limited to 25 km/h and requires a certificate of conformity.

A speed pedelec may provide pedal assistance up to 45 km/h and have a motor of up to 4000 W. Unlike an ordinary pedelec, it requires registration, an appropriate driving licence and a helmet.

A Belgian light quadricycle is a four-wheeled motor vehicle belonging to the light L6e category and having a maximum design speed of no more than 45 km/h.

Under the current Road Code, a four-wheeled moped may have a maximum unladen mass of 425 kg. For an electric vehicle, the battery mass is excluded from this figure.

A three- or four-wheeled moped may have no more than two seats in total, including the driver's seat.

A light quadricycle normally requires a category AM driving licence. Holders of higher licence categories such as A1, A2, A or B also have entitlement to category AM.

You must normally be at least 16 years old to drive a light quadricycle. The driver must be at least 18 years old to carry a passenger under the applicable moped rules.

A motor quadricycle that is not a light quadricycle belongs to category B for Belgian driving-licence purposes. The normal minimum age for the category B practical licence is 18.

Yes. Light quadricycles used on public roads must normally be registered with the DIV and display the appropriate registration plate.

A Belgian light quadricycle receives a registration plate beginning with S-U.

Yes. The normal registration procedure requires the vehicle to be insured and registered through the applicable motor-vehicle insurance and DIV procedure.

Yes, where the vehicle has no passenger compartment. Drivers and passengers of motorised three- and four-wheelers and mopeds without a passenger compartment must wear an approved protective helmet, subject to the specific legal exceptions.

The general Belgian helmet requirement specifically applies to vehicles without a passenger compartment. In an enclosed vehicle, occupants must instead respect the applicable seat-belt and child-restraint requirements where the seating positions are equipped with them.

Yes, where a seat belt is fitted. Drivers and passengers of motor vehicles other than cars must wear the seat belts provided at their seating positions.

No. A light quadricycle falls within the moped category, and mopeds are prohibited from Belgian motorways. Its maximum design speed of 45 km/h is also well below the motorway requirement.

No. Mopeds are expressly prohibited from roads designated as autowegen, so a light quadricycle may not use them.

Only if the vehicle satisfies all motorway-access requirements. Belgian law specifically prohibits motor quadricycles without a passenger compartment and vehicles unable to reach 70 km/h on a level road. An enclosed motor quadricycle capable of satisfying the other motorway requirements is therefore treated differently from a light quadricycle.

Generally yes. Except where a special provision applies, drivers of motor quadricycles that are not classified as mopeds must follow the same traffic rules as drivers of cars.

Microcar is not a separate Belgian legal vehicle category. Most low-speed microcars are legally classified as light quadricycles, while more powerful models can be classified as motor quadricycles.

A typical light microcar is a four-wheeled light quadricycle with a maximum design speed of no more than 45 km/h.

The maximum mass in running order is generally 425 kg. For electric vehicles, the traction-battery mass is excluded from this figure.

A three- or four-wheeled moped may have no more than two seats in total, including the driver's seat.

A light quadricycle capable of travelling above 25 km/h and up to 45 km/h normally requires a category AM driving licence. A licence valid for A1, A2, A or B also includes category AM.

You must normally be at least 16 years old to obtain and use category AM.

A category-AM driver must normally be at least 18 years old before carrying a passenger.

If the vehicle is legally classified as a motor quadricycle rather than a light quadricycle, category B is normally required. The normal minimum age for a full category B licence is 18.

Yes. Light quadricycles must be registered with the DIV and display the appropriate registration plate.

A Belgian light quadricycle receives a registration plate beginning with S-U.

Yes. Motor vehicles participating in Belgian road traffic must normally have at least the compulsory civil-liability motor insurance.

No general helmet requirement applies when the light quadricycle has a passenger compartment. The Belgian helmet requirement for mopeds and motor quadricycles specifically applies to vehicles without a passenger compartment.

Yes, where seat belts are fitted. Drivers and passengers of motor vehicles other than cars must wear the seat belts provided at their seating positions.

No. The Belgian cycle-path provisions allowing or requiring moped use concern two-wheeled mopeds. A four-wheeled light microcar therefore travels on the carriageway rather than on a cycle path.

No. A light quadricycle belongs to the moped category, and mopeds are prohibited from Belgian motorways. Its maximum design speed of 45 km/h is also below the motorway requirement.

No. Belgian rules expressly prohibit mopeds from roads designated as autowegen.

Road-approved four-wheeled ATVs may be classified as light quads in category L6e-A or heavy quads in category L7e-A, depending on their technical characteristics.

A light quadricycle with a maximum design speed of 45 km/h falls under category AM. Holders of an A1, A2, A or B licence automatically also hold category AM.

A road-going motor quadricycle that does not fall within the light category generally requires a category B driving licence.

Belgian technical regulations define a bestelwagen as a truck with a cab integrated into the vehicle body. Vans intended primarily for carrying goods normally belong to one of the N vehicle categories.

Generally, yes if the vehicle falls within category B limits. This normally means a maximum authorised mass of no more than 3500 kg and no more than eight passenger seats in addition to the driver's seat.

Yes. When a van exceeds the normal category-B weight limit, a C1 or C licence may be required, subject to specific exemptions or special rules that may apply to certain vehicles.

Belgian rules recognise vehicles such as motorhomes or campervans as specific vehicle types. The applicable registration, technical and driving-licence requirements depend on the particular vehicle and its maximum authorised mass.

Yes, if it falls within category B limits. A category B licence generally covers a motorhome with a maximum authorised mass of no more than 3500 kg and no more than eight passenger seats in addition to the driver's seat.

A motorhome exceeding 3500 kg generally requires a C1 or C licence, depending on its maximum authorised mass and the applicable licence conditions.

Scooter is not a separate legal vehicle category. Depending on its technical characteristics, a scooter may be classified as a class A moped, class B moped or motorcycle.

A class A moped has a maximum design speed of 25 km/h, while a class B moped can have a maximum design speed of up to 45 km/h.

A two-wheeled class A moped must generally use a usable mandatory cycle path. For a class B moped, use of the cycle path depends on the applicable speed limit and signs: where the limit is 50 km/h or less it may generally use certain cycle paths, while on roads with a higher limit it must generally use them when they are present and usable.

A human-powered Trikke that falls within the definition of a non-motorised personal mobility device is treated as a pedestrian when travelling no faster than walking pace and as a cyclist when travelling faster than walking pace.

If an electric Trikke meets the definition of a motorised personal mobility device, including a maximum design speed of no more than 25 km/h, its user is treated as a cyclist.

No. The classification depends on the particular vehicle's propulsion and technical characteristics. A faster or differently constructed motorised Trikke may fall into another vehicle category and therefore be subject to different rules.

Belgian law uses the term voortbewegingstoestel for a category that includes both non-motorised and motorised personal mobility devices.

Examples include electric scooters, electric skateboards, monowheels, self-balancing electric devices, powered wheelchairs and mobility scooters.

A motorised personal transporter must have a construction-determined maximum speed of no more than 25 km/h.

Users of motorised personal transporters are treated as cyclists. They therefore follow the traffic rules applying to cyclists unless a specific rule provides otherwise.

Yes, where the corresponding cyclist rules require use of an available and usable cycle path. Because users of motorised personal transporters are treated as cyclists, they generally follow the same road-position rules.

Normally not as an ordinary pedestrian. A motorised personal-transporter user is treated as a cyclist and must follow the applicable cyclist road-position rules rather than simply riding on the pavement at walking speed.

A person with reduced mobility using a motorised personal transporter intended for that purpose and travelling at no more than walking speed is treated as a pedestrian and may use the pedestrian facilities accordingly.

You must normally be at least 16 years old to ride a motorised personal transporter on the public road.

Yes. The minimum age does not apply in certain places including residential areas and home zones, certain reserved roads, permitted pedestrian zones and play streets. It also does not apply to qualifying persons with reduced mobility using an appropriate device.

No. Motorised personal transporters are not treated as motor vehicles for the purposes of the Belgian driving-licence rules, so an ordinary electric scooter within this category does not require a driving licence.

No, unless the device was specifically built to transport passengers. A personal transporter may not carry more passengers than the number for which its seating positions are designed.

A motorised personal transporter with a handlebar must always have a white reflector at the front and a red reflector at the rear. Motorised personal transporters must also have the prescribed lateral reflective markings.

A motorised personal transporter with a handlebar must have an audible warning device that can be heard from at least 20 metres.

Yes. Motorised personal transporters must have a sufficiently effective braking system.

When travelling outside areas reserved for pedestrians between nightfall and dawn or when visibility is below approximately 200 metres, the user must display a white or yellow light at the front and a red light at the rear.

The maximum permitted width of a personal transporter is 1 metre.

Personal transporters must normally be placed outside the carriageway and ordinary parking strips without creating danger or obstruction, unless a specifically marked parking place permits them there.

Yes. Belgian traffic signs and road markings can designate parking places specifically for personal transporters, including shared personal transporters.

A skateboard is considered a non-motorised personal mobility device under Belgian traffic rules.

Yes, when travelling no faster than walking pace. A skateboard user moving at walking pace is treated as a pedestrian and must follow the rules applying to pedestrians.

When travelling faster than walking pace, the skateboard user is treated as a cyclist and must follow the traffic rules applying to cyclists.

A Segway that meets the applicable technical conditions, including a maximum design speed of no more than 25 km/h, is considered a motorised personal mobility device.

Yes. Users of motorised personal mobility devices are legally treated as cyclists and must follow the traffic rules that apply to them.

The general minimum age for using a motorised personal mobility device on a public road is 16 years. Exceptions apply in locations such as residential areas, reserved roads, certain pedestrian zones and play streets.

A normal kick scooter is a non-motorised personal mobility device. When the user travels no faster than walking pace, they are treated as a pedestrian; when travelling faster than walking pace, they are treated as a cyclist.

An electric kick scooter with a maximum design speed of no more than 25 km/h can fall within the category of a motorised personal mobility device. Its user is treated as a cyclist.

The general minimum age for using a motorised personal mobility device on a public road is 16 years. Exceptions apply in residential areas and erven, on certain reserved roads, in qualifying pedestrian zones and play streets, as well as for certain mobility devices used by people with reduced mobility.

Roller skates are considered a non-motorised personal mobility device under Belgian traffic rules.

Yes, when travelling no faster than walking pace. In that situation, the roller skater must follow the traffic rules that apply to pedestrians.

When travelling faster than walking pace, the roller skater is treated as a cyclist and must follow the traffic rules applying to cyclists, including the applicable rules concerning road position and cycle facilities.

No general special priority is granted simply because someone is a postal worker. They must follow the traffic rules applicable to them as pedestrians, cyclists or drivers.

No general postal-service exemption is defined in the current Belgian Road Code. Postal delivery vehicles must follow the applicable stopping and parking rules unless a specific local authorisation or traffic arrangement provides otherwise.

Yes. The Belgian F34a direction sign may guide road users toward public or general-interest facilities, including a post office.

Yes. A person hitchhiking on foot is subject to the normal Belgian rules for pedestrians and does not receive a special traffic status simply because they are seeking a ride.

No. Pedestrians are prohibited from entering Belgian motorways, so a hitchhiker may not stand or walk on the motorway to seek a ride.

A hitchhiker should use a safe place intended or permitted for pedestrians, such as a pavement or suitable verge, and should not unnecessarily stand on the carriageway or choose a location where a stopping vehicle would create a danger or obstruction.

Yes. Children under 18 who are shorter than 135 cm must generally be transported in a suitable child restraint system.

A child under 3 years old may not be transported on a seating position that is not equipped with a seat belt.

Yes, but only when the frontal airbag is deactivated or automatically deactivates correctly. A rear-facing child restraint must not be used in front of an active frontal airbag.

Yes. Children under 18 who are shorter than 135 cm must generally be transported in an appropriate child restraint system.

Drivers must be especially cautious around children. They must slow down and, if necessary, stop.

Yes. Cyclists younger than 10 years old may use pavements and raised verges in all circumstances.